A) Using SLS, PCL and HA/PCL microspheres were used to create heterogeneous scaffolds with mechanical property gradients in order to model the cartilage, interface, and subchondral bone layers of the osteochondral unit. Multilayered scaffold approaches to various complex tissue types. These multilayered 3DP strategies show great promise in the future of tissue engineering. By utilizing high precision 3DP techniques and judicious material selection, scaffolds can thus be designed to address the regeneration of previously challenging musculoskeletal, dental, and other heterogeneous target tissues. To better replicate the varied and gradated properties of larger tissues, researchers have created scaffolds composed of multiple materials spanning natural polymers, synthetic polymers, and ceramics. Additionally, emerging bioprinting strategies have been used for the direct printing and spatial patterning of cells and chemical factors, capturing the complex organization found in the body. Traditional 3DP technologies such as extrusion printing and selective laser sintering have been used for the construction of scaffolds with gradient architectures and mixed material compositions. Musculoskeletal and dental tissues in particular, such as the osteochondral unit and periodontal complex, are composed of multiple interfacing tissue types, and thus benefit from the usage of multilayered scaffold fabrication.

Of strong interest to tissue engineers is the construction of multilayered scaffolds that target distinct regions of complex tissues. The emergence of three-dimensional printing (3DP) technologies has enabled the fabrication of highly complex scaffolds which offer a more accurate replication of native tissue properties and architecture than previously possible. The field of tissue engineering has produced new therapies for the repair of damaged tissues and organs, utilizing biomimetic scaffolds that mirror the mechanical and biological properties of host tissue.

Tissue engineering scaffold nih